Armenia
Republic of Armenia | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: Մեր Հայրենիք Mer Hayrenik "Our Fatherland" | |
.svg) Location of Armenia | |
| Capital and largest city | Yerevan 40°11′N 44°31′E / 40.183°N 44.517°E |
| Official languages | Armenian[1] |
| Recognized languages | |
| Official script | Armenian alphabet |
| Ethnic groups (2022)[3] | |
| Religion (2022)[3] |
|
| Demonym(s) | Armenian |
| Government | Unitary parliamentary republic |
| Vahagn Khachaturyan | |
| Nikol Pashinyan | |
| Alen Simonyan | |
| Legislature | National Assembly |
| Establishment | |
• Urartu | 860 BC–547/90 BC |
| 331 BC–428 AD | |
| 880s–1045 | |
| 1198/99–1375 | |
| 1201–1350 | |
| 28 May 1918 | |
| 29 November 1920 | |
• Restoration of independence | 23 September 1991 |
| 21 December 1991 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 29,743 km2 (11,484 sq mi) (138th) |
• Water (%) | 4.71[4] |
| Population | |
• 2024[5] estimate | 3,015,400 (138th) |
• Density | 101.5/km2 (262.9/sq mi) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $64.432 billion[6] (114th) |
• Per capita | $21,746[6] (77th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $25.408 billion[6] (115th) |
• Per capita | $8,575[6] (84th) |
| Gini (2022) |  27.9[7]low inequality |
| HDI (2022) | 0.786[8] high (76th) |
| Currency | Dram (֏) (AMD) |
| Time zone | UTC+4 (AMT) |
| Date format | dd.mm.yyyy |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +374 |
| ISO 3166 code | AM |
| Internet TLD | |
Website www | |
Armenia[c] officially the Republic of Armenia,[d] is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia.[10][11] It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.[12] Yerevan is the capital, largest city and financial center.
Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. The Armenian Highlands has been home to the Hayasa-Azzi, Shupria and Nairi. By at least 600 BC, an archaic form of Proto-Armenian, an Indo-European language, had diffused into the Armenian Highlands.[13][14] The first Armenian state of Urartu was established in 860 BC, and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and in the year 301 became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion.[15][16][17][e] Armenia still recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment.[18][f] The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century. Under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century before falling in 1045. Cilician Armenia, an Armenian principality and later a kingdom, was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries.
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Persian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule. During World War I, up to 1.5 million Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian genocide. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Armenian SSR. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Armenia is a developing country and ranks 85th on the Human Development Index (2021).[8] Its economy is primarily based on industrial output and mineral extraction. While Armenia is geographically located in the South Caucasus, it is generally considered geopolitically European. Since Armenia aligns itself in many respects geopolitically with Europe, the country is a member of numerous European organizations including the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, the Council of Europe, the Eastern Partnership, Eurocontrol, the Assembly of European Regions, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Armenia is also a member of certain regional groups throughout Eurasia, including the Asian Development Bank, the Collective Security Treaty Organization,[g] the Eurasian Economic Union, and the Eurasian Development Bank. Armenia supported the once de facto independent Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh), which was proclaimed in 1991 on territory internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, until the republic's dissolution in September 2023.
Etymology
The original native Armenian name for the country was Հայք (Hayk’); however, it is currently rarely used. The contemporary name Հայաստան (Hayastan) became popular in the Middle Ages by addition of the Persian suffix -stan (place).[19] However the origins of the name Hayastan trace back to much earlier dates and were first attested in c. 5th century in the works of Agathangelos,[20][21] Faustus of Byzantium,[22][23] Ghazar Parpetsi,[24] Koryun,[25] and Sebeos.[26]
The name has traditionally been derived from Hayk (Հայկ), the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and a great-great-grandson of Noah, who, according to the 5th-century AD author Moses of Chorene (Movsis Khorenatsi), defeated the Babylonian king Bel in 2492 BC and established his nation in the Ararat region.[27] The further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also further postulated[28][29] that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states – the Ḫayaša-Azzi (1600–1200 BC).
The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription (515 BC) as Armina (𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴). The Ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία (Armenía) and Ἀρμένιοι (Arménioi, "Armenians") are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC).[30] Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC.[31]
Some scholars have linked the name Armenia with the Early Bronze Age state of Armani (Armanum, Armi) or the Late Bronze Age state of Arme (Shupria).[32] These connections are inconclusive as it is not known what languages were spoken in these kingdoms. Additionally, while it is agreed that Arme was located to the immediate west of Lake Van (probably in the vicinity of Sason, and therefore in the greater Armenia region), the location of the older site of Armani is a matter of debate. Some modern researchers have placed it near modern Samsat,[33] and have suggested it was populated, at least partially, by an early Indo-European-speaking people.[34] It is possible that the name Armenia originates in Armini, Urartian for "inhabitant of Arme" or "Armean country".[35] The Arme tribe of Urartian texts may have been the Urumu, who in the 12th century BC attempted to invade Assyria from the north with their allies the Mushki and the Kaskians. The Urumu apparently settled in the vicinity of Sason, lending their name to the regions of Arme and the nearby lands of Urme and Inner Urumu.[36] Given that this was an exonym, it may have meant "wasteland, dense forest", cf. armutu (wasteland), armaḫḫu (thicket, thick woods), armāniš (tree). The southerners considered the northern forests to be the abode of dangerous beasts.
According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a lineal descendant of Hayk.[37][38] In the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, the Table of Nations lists Aram as the son of Shem, to whom the Book of Jubilees attests,
And for Aram there came forth the fourth portion, all the land of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates to the north of the Chaldees to the border of the mountains of Asshur and the land of 'Arara'.[39][40]
Jubilees 8:21 also apportions the Mountains of Ararat to Shem, which Jubilees 9:5 expounds to be apportioned to Aram.[39][40]
The historian Flavius Josephus also states in his Antiquities of the Jews,
Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians;... Of the four sons of Aram, Uz founded Trachonitis and Damascus: this country lies between Palestine and Celesyria. Ul founded Armenia; and Gather the Bactrians; and Mesa the Mesaneans; it is now called Charax Spasini.[41]
History
Prehistoric
The first human traces are supported by the presence of Acheulean tools, generally close to the obsidian outcrops more than 1 million years ago.[42]
The most recent and important excavation is at the Nor Geghi 1 Stone Age site in the Hrazdan river valley.[43] Thousands of 325,000 year-old artifacts may indicate that this stage of human technological innovation occurred intermittently throughout the Old World, rather than spreading from a single point of origin (usually hypothesized to be Africa), as was previously thought.[44]
Many early Bronze Age settlements were built in Armenia (Valley of Ararat, Shengavit, Harich, Karaz, Amiranisgora, Margahovit, Garni, etc.). One of the important sites of the Early Bronze Age is Shengavit Settlement,[45] It was located on the site of today's capital of Armenia, Yerevan.
Such things were discovered in Armenia, for example, the oldest shoe, oldest wagon, oldest skirt, and the oldest wine-making facility.[46]
Antiquity
Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the mountains of Ararat. There is evidence of an early civilisation in Armenia in the Bronze Age and earlier, dating to about 4000 BC. Archaeological surveys in 2010 and 2011 at the Areni-1 cave complex have resulted in the discovery of the world's earliest known leather shoe,[47] skirt,[48] and wine-producing facility.[49]
Several Bronze Age cultures and states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture, Hayasa-Azzi, and Mitanni (located in southwestern historical Armenia), all of which are believed to have had Indo-European populations.[50][51][52][53][54][55] The Nairi confederation and its successor, Urartu, successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highlands. Each of the aforementioned nations and confederacies participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenians.[56][57][58][59] A large cuneiform lapidary inscription found in Yerevan established that the modern capital of Armenia was founded in the summer of 782 BC by King Argishti I. Yerevan is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities.[60]
After the fall of the state of Urartu at the beginning of the 6th century BC, the Armenian Highlands were for some time under the hegemony of the Medes, and after that they were part of the Achaemenid Empire. Armenia was part of the Achaemenid state from the second half of the 6th century BC until the second half of the 4th century BC divided into two satrapies - XIII (western part, with the capital in Melitene) and XVIII (northeastern part).[61]
During the late 6th century BC, the first geographical entity that was called Armenia by neighbouring populations was established under the Orontid Dynasty within the Achaemenid Empire, as part of the latter's territories.[62]
The kingdom became fully sovereign from the sphere of influence of the Seleucid Empire in 190 BC under King Artaxias I and begun the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty. Armenia reached its height between 95 and 66 BC under Tigranes the Great, becoming the most powerful kingdom of its time east of the Roman Republic.[63] In the next centuries, Armenia was in the Persian Empire's sphere of influence during the reign of Tiridates I, the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia, which itself was a branch of the Parthian Empire. Throughout its history, the kingdom of Armenia enjoyed both periods of independence and periods of autonomy subject to contemporary empires. Its strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including Assyria (under Ashurbanipal, at around 669–627 BC, the boundaries of Assyria reached as far as Armenia and the Caucasus Mountains),[64] Medes, Achaemenid Empire, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Sasanian Empire, Byzantine Empire, Arabs, Seljuk Empire, Mongols, Ottoman Empire, the successive Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties of Iran, and the Russians.
Religion in ancient Armenia was historically related to a set of beliefs that, in Persia, led to the emergence of Zoroastrianism. It particularly focused on the worship of Mithra and also included a pantheon of gods such as Aramazd, Vahagn, Anahit, and Astghik. The country used the solar Armenian calendar, which consisted of 12 months.[66]
Christianity spread into the country in the early 4th century AD.[67] Tiridates III of Armenia (238–314) made Christianity the state religion in 301,[67][68] partly, in defiance of the Sasanian Empire, it seems,[69] becoming the first officially Christian state, ten years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity an official toleration under Galerius, and 36 years before Constantine the Great was baptised. Prior to this, during the latter part of the Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian country.[69]
After the fall of the Kingdom of Armenia in 428, most of Armenia was incorporated as a marzpanate within the Sasanian Empire.[70] Following the Battle of Avarayr in 451, Christian Armenians maintained their religion and Armenia gained autonomy.[71]
Middle Ages
The Sassanid Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the mid 7th century, reuniting Armenian lands previously taken by the Byzantine Empire, and Armenia subsequently emerged as Arminiya, an autonomous principality under the Umayyad Caliphate. The principality was ruled by the Prince of Armenia, and recognised by the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor. It was part of the administrative division/emirate Arminiya created by the Arabs, which also included parts of Georgia and Caucasian Albania, and had its centre in the Armenian city, Dvin. Arminiya lasted until 884, when it regained its independence from the weakened Abbasid Caliphate under Ashot I of Armenia.[75]
The reemergent Armenian kingdom was ruled by the Bagratuni dynasty and lasted until 1045. In time, several areas of the Bagratid Armenia separated as independent kingdoms and principalities such as the Kingdom of Vaspurakan ruled by the House of Artsruni in the south, Kingdom of Syunik in the east, or Kingdom of Artsakh on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh, while still recognising the supremacy of the Bagratid kings.[76]
In 1045, the Byzantine Empire conquered Bagratid Armenia. Soon, the other Armenian states fell under Byzantine control as well. The Byzantine rule was short-lived, as in 1071 the Seljuk Empire defeated the Byzantines and conquered Armenia at the Battle of Manzikert, establishing the Seljuk Empire.[77] To escape death or servitude at the hands of those who had assassinated his relative, Gagik II of Armenia, King of Ani, an Armenian named Ruben I, Prince of Armenia, went with some of his countrymen into the gorges of the Taurus Mountains and then into Tarsus of Cilicia. The Byzantine governor of the palace gave them shelter where the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually established on 6 January 1198 under Leo I, King of Armenia, a descendant of Prince Ruben.[78]
Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, the spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region.[79]
The Seljuk Empire soon started to collapse. In the early 12th century, Armenian princes of the Zakarid family drove out the Seljuk Turks and established a semi-independent principality in northern and eastern Armenia known as Zakarid Armenia, which lasted under the patronage of the Georgian Kingdom. The Orbelian Dynasty shared control with the Zakarids in various parts of the country, especially in Syunik and Vayots Dzor, while the House of Hasan-Jalalyan controlled provinces of Artsakh and Utik as the Kingdom of Artsakh.[80]
Early Modern era
During the 1230s, the Mongol Empire conquered Zakarid Armenia and then the remainder of Armenia. The Mongolian invasions were soon followed by those of other Central Asian tribes, such as the Kara Koyunlu, Timurid dynasty and Ağ Qoyunlu, which continued from the 13th century until the 15th century. After incessant invasions, each bringing destruction to the country, with time Armenia became weakened.[81]
In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Iran divided Armenia. From the early 16th century, both Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia fell to the Safavid Empire.[82][83] Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geopolitical rivalry that would last in West Asia, significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires during the Ottoman–Persian Wars. From the mid 16th century with the Peace of Amasya, and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with the Treaty of Zuhab until the first half of the 19th century,[84] Eastern Armenia was ruled by the successive Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar empires, while Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule.
From 1604, Abbas I of Iran implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved a forced resettlement of masses of Armenians outside of their homelands.[85]
In the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay, following the Russo-Persian War (1804–13) and the Russo-Persian War (1826–28), respectively, the Qajar dynasty of Iran was forced to irrevocably cede Eastern Armenia, consisting of the Erivan and Karabakh Khanates, to Imperial Russia.[86][87] This period is known as Russian Armenia.
While Western Armenia still remained under Ottoman rule, the Armenians were granted considerable autonomy within their own enclaves and lived in relative harmony with other groups in the empire (including the ruling Turks). However, as Christians under a strict Muslim social structure, Armenians faced pervasive discrimination. In response to 1894 Sasun rebellion, Sultan Abdul Hamid II organised state-sponsored massacres against the Armenians between 1894 and 1896, resulting in an estimated death toll of 80,000 to 300,000 people. The Hamidian massacres, as they came to be known, gave Hamid international infamy as the "Red Sultan" or "Bloody Sultan".[88]
During the 1890s, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, commonly known as Dashnaktsutyun, became active within the Ottoman Empire with the aim of unifying the various small groups in the empire that were advocating for reform and defending Armenian villages from massacres that were widespread in some of the Armenian-populated areas of the empire. Dashnaktsutyun members also formed Armenian fedayi groups that defended Armenian civilians through armed resistance. The Dashnaks also worked for the wider goal of creating a "free, independent and unified" Armenia, although they sometimes set aside this goal in favour of a more realistic approach, such as advocating autonomy.
The Ottoman Empire began to collapse, and in 1908, the Young Turk Revolution overthrew the government of Sultan Hamid. In April 1909, the Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire resulting in the deaths of as many as 20,000–30,000 Armenians. The Armenians living in the empire hoped that the Committee of Union and Progress would change their second-class status. The Armenian reform package (1914) was presented as a solution by appointing an inspector general over Armenian issues.[89]
World War I and the Armenian genocide
The outbreak of World War I led to confrontation between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire in the Caucasus and Persian campaigns. The new government in Istanbul began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion because the Imperial Russian Army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Anatolia perished in what has become known as the Armenian genocide.[90][91]
The genocide was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre.[92][93] There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings, or genocide.[94]
Turkish authorities deny the genocide took place to this day. The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides.[95][96] According to the research conducted by Arnold J. Toynbee, an estimated 600,000 Armenians died during deportation from 1915 to 1916. This figure, however, accounts for solely the first year of the Genocide and does not take into account those who died or were killed after the report was compiled on 24 May 1916.[97] The International Association of Genocide Scholars places the death toll at "more than a million".[98] The total number of people killed has been most widely estimated at between 1 and 1.5 million.[99]
Armenia and the Armenian diaspora have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years. These events are traditionally commemorated yearly on 24 April, the Armenian Martyr Day, or the Day of the Armenian genocide.[100]
First Republic of Armenia
Although the Russian Caucasus Army of Imperial forces commanded by Nikolai Yudenich and Armenians in volunteer units and Armenian militia led by Andranik Ozanian and Tovmas Nazarbekian succeeded in gaining most of Western Armenia during World War I, their gains were lost with the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.[102] At the time, Russian-controlled Eastern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan attempted to bond together in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. This federation, however, lasted from only February to May 1918, when all three parties decided to dissolve it. As a result, the Dashnaktsutyun government of Eastern Armenia declared its independence on 28 May as the First Republic of Armenia under the leadership of Aram Manukian.[103]
The First Republic's short-lived independence was fraught with war, territorial disputes, large-scale rebellions, and a mass influx of refugees from Western Armenia, bringing with them disease and starvation. The Entente Powers sought to help the newly founded Armenian state through relief funds and other forms of support.[104]
At the end of the war, the victorious powers sought to divide up the Ottoman Empire. Signed between the Allied and Associated Powers and Ottoman Empire at Sèvres on 10 August 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres promised to maintain the existence of the Armenian republic and to attach the former territories of Western Armenia to it.[105] Because the new borders of Armenia were to be drawn by United States President Woodrow Wilson, Western Armenia was also referred to as "Wilsonian Armenia". In addition, just days prior, on 5 August 1920, Mihran Damadian of the Armenian National Union, the de facto Armenian administration in Cilicia, declared the independence of Cilicia as an Armenian autonomous republic under French protectorate.[106]
There was even consideration of making Armenia a mandate under the protection of the United States. The treaty, however, was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, and never came into effect.[107] The movement used the treaty as the occasion to declare itself the rightful government of Turkey, replacing the monarchy based in Istanbul with a republic based in Ankara.
In 1920, Turkish nationalist forces invaded the fledgling Armenian republic from the east. Turkish forces under the command of Kazım Karabekir captured Armenian territories that Russia had annexed in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War and occupied the old city of Alexandropol (present-day Gyumri). The violent conflict finally concluded with the Treaty of Alexandropol on 2 December 1920. The treaty forced Armenia to disarm most of its military forces, cede all former Ottoman territory granted to it by the Treaty of Sèvres, and to give up all the "Wilsonian Armenia" granted to it at the Sèvres treaty. Simultaneously, the Soviet Eleventh Army, under the command of Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze, invaded Armenia at Karavansarai (present-day Ijevan) on 29 November. By 4 December, Ordzhonikidze's forces entered Yerevan and the short-lived Armenian republic collapsed.[108]
After the fall of the republic, the February Uprising soon took place in 1921, and led to the establishment of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia by Armenian forces under command of Garegin Nzhdeh on 26 April, which fought off both Soviet and Turkish intrusions in the Zangezur region of southern Armenia. After Soviet agreements to include the Syunik Province in Armenia's borders, the rebellion ended and the Red Army took control of the region on 13 July.
Armenian SSR
1922 to World War II
Armenia was annexed by the Red Army and along with Georgia and Azerbaijan, was incorporated into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (TSFSR) on 4 March 1922.[109][110] With this annexation, the Treaty of Alexandropol was superseded by the Turkish-Soviet Treaty of Kars. In the agreement, Turkey allowed the Soviet Union to assume control over Adjara with the port city of Batumi in return for sovereignty over the cities of Kars, Ardahan, and Iğdır, all of which were part of Russian Armenia.[109][110]
The TSFSR existed from 1922 to 1936, when it was divided up into three separate entities (Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, and Georgian SSR). Armenians enjoyed a period of relative stability within USSR in contrast to the turbulent final years of the Ottoman Empire. The situation was difficult for the church, which struggled with secular policies of USSR. After the death of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, the general secretary of the Communist Party, gradually established himself as the dictator of the USSR. Stalin's reign was characterized by mass repressions, that cost millions of lives all over the USSR.[citation needed]
World War II and post-Stalinist period
Armenia was not the scene of any battles in World War II. An estimated 500,000 Armenians (nearly a third of the population) served in the Red Army during the war, and 175,000 died.[111] A total of 117 citizens of Armenia including 10 non ethnic Armenians were awarded Hero of the Soviet Union. Six special military divisions were formed in Soviet Armenia in 1941–42, partly because so many draftees from the republic could not understand Russian. Five of them, the 89th, 409th, 408th, 390th, and 76th Divisions, would have a distinguished war record, while the sixth was ordered to stay in Armenia to guard the republic's western borders against a possible incursion by neighboring Turkey. The 89th Tamanyan Division, composed of ethnic Armenians, fought in the Battle of Berlin and entered Berlin.
It is claimed[by whom?] that the freedom index in the region had seen an improvement after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 and the emergence of Nikita Khrushchev as the new general secretary of the CPSU. Soon, life in Armenia's SSR began to see rapid improvement. The church, which was limited during the secretaryship of Stalin, was revived when Catholicos Vazgen I assumed the duties of his office in 1955. In 1967, a memorial to the victims of the Armenian genocide was built at the Tsitsernakaberd hill above the Hrazdan gorge in Yerevan. This occurred after mass demonstrations took place on the tragic event's fiftieth anniversary in 1965.
Gorbachev era
.jpg)
During the Gorbachev era of the 1980s, with the reforms of Glasnost and Perestroika, Armenians began to demand better environmental care for their country, opposing the pollution that Soviet-built factories brought. Tensions also developed between Soviet Azerbaijan and its autonomous district of Nagorno-Karabakh, a majority-Armenian region. About 484,000 Armenians lived in Azerbaijan in 1970.[112] The Armenians of Karabakh demanded unification with Soviet Armenia. Peaceful protests in Armenia supporting the Karabakh Armenians were met with anti-Armenian pogroms in Azerbaijan, such as the one in Sumgait, which was followed by anti-Azerbaijani violence in Armenia.[113] Compounding Armenia's problems was a devastating earthquake in 1988 with a moment magnitude of 7.2.[114]
Gorbachev's inability to alleviate any of Armenia's problems created disillusionment among the Armenians and fed a growing hunger for independence. In May 1990, the New Armenian Army (NAA) was established, serving as a defence force separate from the Soviet Red Army. Clashes soon broke out between the NAA and Soviet Internal Security Forces (MVD) troops based in Yerevan when Armenians decided to commemorate the establishment of the 1918 First Republic of Armenia. The violence resulted in the deaths of five Armenians killed in a shootout with the MVD at the railway station. Witnesses there claimed that the MVD used excessive force and that they had instigated the fighting.[citation needed]
Further firefights between Armenian militiamen and Soviet troops occurred in Sovetashen, near the capital and resulted in the deaths of over 26 people, mostly Armenians. The pogrom of Armenians in Baku in January 1990 forced almost all of the 200,000 Armenians in the Azerbaijani capital Baku to flee to Armenia.[115] On 23 August 1990, Armenia declared its sovereignty on its territory. On 17 March 1991, Armenia, along with the Baltic states, Georgia and Moldova, boycotted a nationwide referendum in which 78% of all voters voted for the retention of the Soviet Union in a reformed form.[116]
Restoration of independence
On 21 September 1991, Armenia officially declared its statehood after the failed August coup in Moscow, RSFSR. Levon Ter-Petrosyan was popularly elected the first President of the newly independent Republic of Armenia on 16 October 1991. He had risen to prominence by leading the Karabakh movement for the unification of the Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh.[117] On 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist and Armenia's independence was recognised.
Ter-Petrosyan led Armenia alongside Defense Minister Vazgen Sargsyan through the First Nagorno-Karabakh War with neighbouring Azerbaijan. The initial post-Soviet years were marred by economic difficulties, which had their roots early in the Karabakh conflict when the Azerbaijani Popular Front managed to pressure the Azerbaijan SSR to instigate a railway and air blockade against Armenia. This move effectively debilitated Armenia's economy as 85% of its cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic.[117] In 1993, Turkey joined the blockade against Armenia in support of Azerbaijan.[118]
The Karabakh war ended after a Russian-brokered ceasefire was put in place in 1994. The war was a success for the Karabakh Armenian forces who managed to capture 16% of Azerbaijan's internationally recognised territory including almost all of the Nagorno-Karabakh itself.[119] The Armenian backed forces remained in control of practically all of that territory until 2020. The economies of both Armenia and Azerbaijan have been hurt in the absence of a complete resolution and Armenia's borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan remain closed. By the time both Azerbaijan and Armenia had finally agreed to a ceasefire in 1994, an estimated 30,000 people had been killed and over a million had been displaced.[120] Several thousand were killed in the later 2020 Karabakh war.
21st century
In the 21st century, Armenia faces many hardships. It has made a full switch to a market economy. One study ranks it the 50th most "economically free" nation in the world, as of 2023[update].[121] Its relations with Europe, the Arab League, and the Commonwealth of Independent States have allowed Armenia to increase trade.[122][123] Gas, oil, and other supplies come through two vital routes: Iran and Georgia. As of 2016[update], Armenia maintained cordial relations with both countries.[124][needs update]
The 2018 Armenian Revolution was a series of anti-government protests in Armenia from April to May 2018 staged by various political and civil groups led by a member of the Armenian parliament — Nikol Pashinyan (head of the Civil Contract party). Protests and marches took place initially in response to Serzh Sargsyan's third consecutive term as President of Armenia and later against the Republican Party controlled government in general. Pashinyan declared the movement, which led to Sargsyan's resignation, a "velvet revolution".[125]
In March 2018, the Armenian parliament elected Armen Sarkissian as the new President of Armenia. The controversial constitutional reform to reduce presidential power was implemented, while the authority of the prime minister was strengthened.[126] In May 2018, parliament elected opposition leader Nikol Pashinyan as the new prime minister. His predecessor Serzh Sargsyan resigned two weeks earlier following widespread anti-government demonstrations.[127]
On 27 September 2020, a full-scale war erupted due to the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.[128] Both the armed forces of Armenia and Azerbaijan reported military and civilian casualties.[129] The Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement to end the six-week war between Armenia and Azerbaijan was seen by many as Armenia's defeat and capitulation.[130] The year-long March of Dignity protests forced early elections.
On 20 June 2021, Pashinyan's Civil Contract party won an early parliamentary election. Acting Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan was officially appointed to the post of prime minister by Armenia's President Armen Sarkissian.[131] In January 2022, Armenian President Armen Sarkissian resigned from office, stating that the constitution no longer gives the president sufficient powers or influence.[132] On 3 March 2022, Vahagn Khachaturyan was elected as the fifth president of Armenia in the second round of parliamentary vote.[133] The next month yet more protests broke out.[134]
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh
Between 19 and 20 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military offensive against the self-declared breakaway state of Artsakh, a move seen by the European Parliament as a violation of the 2020 ceasefire agreement.[135][136] The offensive took place in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, but populated by Armenians.[137][138] The attacks occurred in the midst of an escalating crisis caused by Azerbaijan blockading Artsakh, which resulted in significant scarcities of essential supplies such as food, medicine, and other goods in the affected region.[139]
One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, a ceasefire agreement was reached at the mediation of the Russian peacekeeping command in Nagorno-Karabakh.[140] Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians on 21 September in Yevlakh, to be followed by another meeting in October.[141][142] Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakhi residents and officials.[143][144]
Human rights organizations and experts in genocide prevention issued multiple alerts, stating that the region's Armenian population was at risk or actively being subjected to ethnic cleansing and genocide. Luis Moreno Ocampo, a former prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, warned that another Armenian genocide could take place, and attributed the inaction of the international community to encouraging Azerbaijan that it would face no serious consequences.[145]
Geography
Armenia is a landlocked country in the geopolitical Transcaucasus (South Caucasus) region, that is located in the Southern Caucasus Mountains and their lowlands between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, and northeast of the Armenian Highlands. Located in West Asia,[146][10] on the Armenian Highlands, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the Lachin corridor which is a part of Lachin District that is under the control of a Russian peacekeeping force and Azerbaijan proper to the east, and Iran and Azerbaijan's exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.[12] Armenia lies between latitudes 38° and 42° N, and meridians 43° and 47° E. It contains two terrestrial ecoregions: Caucasus mixed forests and Eastern Anatolian montane steppe.[147]
Topography
Armenia has a territorial area of 29,743 square kilometres (11,484 sq mi). The terrain is mostly mountainous, with fast flowing rivers, and few forests. The land rises to 4,090 metres (13,419 feet) above sea level at Mount Aragats, and no point is below 390 metres (1,280 ft) above sea level.[148] Average elevation of the country area is tenth highest in the world and it has 85.9% mountain area, more than Switzerland or Nepal.[149]
Mount Ararat, which was historically part of Armenia, is the highest mountain in the region at 5,137 meters (16,854 feet). Now located in Turkey, but clearly visible from Armenia, it is regarded by the Armenians as a symbol of their land. Because of this, the mountain is present on the Armenian national emblem today.[150][151][152]
Climate
The climate in Armenia is markedly highland continental. Summers are hot, dry and sunny, lasting from June to mid-September. The temperature fluctuates between 22 and 36 °C (72 and 97 °F). However, the low humidity level mitigates the effect of high temperatures. Evening breezes blowing down the mountains provide a welcome refreshing and cooling effect. Springs are short, while autumns are long. Autumns are known for their vibrant and colourful foliage.
Winters are quite cold with plenty of snow, with temperatures ranging between −10 and −5 °C (14 and 23 °F). Winter sports enthusiasts enjoy skiing down the hills of Tsaghkadzor, located thirty minutes outside Yerevan. Lake Sevan, nestled up in the Armenian highlands, is the second largest lake in the world relative to its altitude, at 1,900 metres (6,234 ft) above sea level.
Environment
Armenia ranked 63rd out of 180 countries on Environmental Performance Index (EPI) in 2018. Its rank on subindex Environmental Health (which is weighted at 40% in EPI) is 109, while Armenia's rank on subindex of Ecosystem Vitality (weighted at 60% in EPI) is 27th best in the world.[154] This suggests that main environmental issues in Armenia are with population health, while environment vitality is of lesser concern. Out of sub-subindices contributing to Environmental Health subindex ranking on Air Quality to which population is exposed is particularly unsatisfying.
In Armenia forest cover is around 12% of the total land area, equivalent to 328,470 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 334,730 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 310,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 18,470 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 5% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.[155][156]
Waste management in Armenia is underdeveloped, as no waste sorting or recycling takes place at Armenia's 60 landfills. A waste processing plant is scheduled for construction near Hrazdan city, which will allow for closure of 10 waste dumps.[157]
Despite the availability of abundant renewable energy sources in Armenia (especially hydroelectric and wind power) and calls from EU officials to shut down the nuclear power plant at Metsamor,[158] the Armenian Government is exploring the possibilities of installing new small modular nuclear reactors. In 2018 existing nuclear plant is scheduled for modernization to enhance its safety and increase power production by about 10%.[159][160]
Government and politics
Armenia is a representative parliamentary democratic republic. The Armenian constitution adhered to the model of a semi-presidential republic until April 2018.
According to the current Constitution of Armenia, the President is the head of state holding largely representational functions, while the Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises executive power.
Since 1995 Legislative power is vested in the Azgayin Zhoghov or National Assembly, which is a unicameral parliament consisting of 105 members.[161]
The Fragile States Index since its first report in 2006 until most recent in 2019, consistently ranked Armenia better than all its neighboring countries (with one exception in 2011).[162]
Armenia has universal suffrage above the age of eighteen.[163][164]
Foreign relations
Armenia became a member of the United Nations on 2 March 1992, and is a signatory to a number of its organizations and other international agreements. Armenia is also a member of international organisations such as the Council of Europe, the Asian Development Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the European Political Community, the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the World Customs Organization, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and La Francophonie. It is a member of the CSTO military alliance, and also participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace program and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 2004, its forces joined KFOR, a NATO-led international force in Kosovo. Armenia is also an observer member of the Arab League,[165] the Organization of American States, the Pacific Alliance, the Non-Aligned Movement, and a dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. As a result of its historical ties to France, Armenia was selected to host the biennial Francophonie summit in 2018.[166]
Armenia has a difficult relation with neighbouring countries Azerbaijan and Turkey. Tensions were running high between Armenians and Azerbaijanis during the final years of the Soviet Union. The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict dominated the region's politics throughout the 1990s.[167] To this day, Armenia's borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan are under severe blockade. In addition, a permanent solution for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has not been reached despite the mediation provided by organizations such as the OSCE.
Turkey also has a long history of poor relations with Armenia over its refusal to acknowledge the Armenian genocide, even though it was one of the first countries to recognize the Republic of Armenia (the third republic) after its independence from the USSR in 1991. Despite this, for most of the 20th century and early 21st century, relations remain tense and there are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries due to Turkey's refusal to establish them for numerous reasons. During the first Nagorno-Karabakh War, and citing it as the reason, Turkey closed its border with Armenia in 1993. It has not lifted its blockade despite pressure from the powerful Turkish business lobby interested in Armenian markets.[167]
_02.jpg)
On 10 October 2009, Armenia and Turkey signed protocols on the normalisation of relations, which set a timetable for restoring diplomatic ties and reopening their joint border.[168] The ratification of those had to be made in the national parliaments. In Armenia, before sending the protocols to the parliament, it was sent to the Constitutional Court to have their constitutionality to be approved. The Constitutional Court made references to the preamble of the protocols underlying three main issues.[169] One of them stated that the implementation of the protocols did not imply Armenia's official recognition of the existing Turkish-Armenian border established by the Treaty of Kars. By doing so, the Constitutional Court rejected one of the main premises of the protocols, i.e. "the mutual recognition of the existing border between the two countries as defined by relevant treaties of international law".[169][170] This was for the Turkish Government the reason to back down from the Protocols.[171] The Armenian President had made multiple public announcements, both in Armenia and abroad, that, as the leader of the political majority of Armenia, he assured the parliamentary ratification of the protocols if Turkey also ratified them. Despite this, the process stopped, as Turkey continuously added more preconditions to its ratification and also "delayed it beyond any reasonable time-period".[citation needed]
Due to its position between two hostile neighbours, Armenia has close security ties with Russia. At the request of the Armenian government, Russia maintains a military base in the city of Gyumri located in Northwestern Armenia[172] as a deterrent against Turkey.[citation needed] Despite this, Armenia has also been looking toward Euro-Atlantic structures in recent years. Armenia maintains positive relations with the United States, which is home to the second largest Armenian diaspora community in the world. According to the US Census Bureau, there are 427,822 Armenian Americans in the country.[173]
Because of the illicit border blockades by Azerbaijan and Turkey, Armenia continues to maintain solid relations with its southern neighbour Iran, especially in the economic sector. Economic projects are being developed between the two nations, including a gas pipeline going from Iran to Armenia.
Armenia is a member of the Council of Europe and maintains close relations with the European Union; especially with its member states France and Greece. In January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia may enter the EU in the future.[174] A 2005 survey reported that 64% of Armenians favored joining the EU,[175] a move multiple Armenian officials have voiced support for.[176]
A former republic of the Soviet Union and an emerging democracy, Armenia was negotiating to become an associate EU partner and had completed negotiations to sign an Association Agreement with a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the EU in 2013. However, the government opted not to finalize the agreement, and instead joined the Eurasian Economic Union.[177][178][179] Despite this, Armenia and the EU finalized the Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA) on 24 November 2017. The agreement enhances the relationship between Armenia and the EU to a new partnership level, further develops cooperation in economic, trade and political areas, aims to improve investment climate, and is designed to bring Armenian law gradually closer to the EU acquis.[180][181][182]
Legally speaking, Armenia has the right to be considered as a prospective EU member provided it meets necessary standards and criteria, though officially such a plan does not exist in Brussels.[183][184][185][186] Armenia is included in the EU's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) and participates in both the Eastern Partnership and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Following the 2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh, Armenia's relations with a long-term ally Russia started to deteriorate. In February 2024, Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan said that the CSTO "hasn't fulfilled its security obligations towards Armenia" and that "in practice we have basically frozen our participation in the CSTO".[187] On 28 February 2024, during a speech made in the National Assembly, Pashinyan further stated that the CSTO is "a threat to the national security of Armenia".[188] In March 2024, Armenia officially expelled Russian border guards from the Zvartnots International Airport in Yerevan.[189]
On 2 March 2024, Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan advised that Armenia would officially "apply to become a candidate for EU membership in the coming days, within a month at most".[190][191] On 5 March, Pashinyan stated that Armenia would apply for EU candidacy by Autumn 2024 at the latest.[192] On 8 March 2024, Armenian Foreign Minister Ararat Mirzoyan stated, "Armenia is seeking to get closer to the West amid worsening relations with Russia" and "New opportunities are largely being discussed in Armenia nowadays, that includes membership in the European Union".[193][194]
Military
.jpg)
The Armenian Army and Air Force are the two branches of the Armed Forces of Armenia. The Armenian military was formed after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and with the establishment of the Ministry of Defence in 1992. The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the Prime Minister of Armenia, Nikol Pashinyan. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership, headed by Davit Tonoyan, while military command remains in the hands of the general staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Onik Gasparyan.
Active forces now number about 81,000 soldiers, with an additional reserve of 32,000 troops. Armenian border guards are in charge of patrolling the country's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey. In the case of an attack, Armenia is able to mobilize every able-bodied man between the age of 15 and 59, with military preparedness.[citation needed]
The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. In March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993. Armenia is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO). Armenia also has an Individual Partnership Action Plan with NATO and it participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PiP) program and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC).
Human rights and freedom
Human rights in Armenia tend to be better than those in most former Soviet republics and have drawn closer to acceptable standards, especially economically.[citation needed] Nonetheless, there are still several considerable problems.
Armenia scored 5.63 on The Economist Democracy Index, published in January 2023 (data for 2022). Although still classified as "hybrid regime", Armenia recorded the strongest improvement among European countries and reached its ever-best score since calculation began in 2006.[195]
Armenia is classified as "partly free" in the 2019 report (with data from 2018) by Freedom House, which gives it a score of 51 out of 100,[196] which is 6 points ahead of the previous estimate.[197]
Armenia recorded unprecedented progress in the 2019 World Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, improving its position by 19 points and ranking 61st on the list. The publication also confirms the absence of cases of killed journalists, citizen journalists or media assistants.[198][199]
Armenia ranks 26th in the 2022 report of The Human Freedom Index published by the American CATO Institute and Canada's Fraser Institute.[200]
Armenia ranked 29th for economic freedom and 76th for personal freedom among 159 countries in the 2017 Human Freedom Index published by the Cato Institute.[201][202]
These classifications may improve when data from 2018, including the period of the velvet revolution and thereafter, is analyzed.[citation needed]
In October 2023 Armenia ratified signing the Rome statute, whereby Armenia will become a full member of the International Criminal Court.[203]
Administrative divisions
Armenia is divided into ten provinces (marzer, singular marz), with the city (kaghak) of Yerevan (Երևան) having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the marzpet (marz governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, elected since 2009.
Within each province there are communities (hamaynkner, singular hamaynk). Each community is self-governing and consists of one or more settlements (bnakavayrer, singular bnakavayr). Settlements are classified as either towns (kaghakner, singular kaghak) or villages (gyugher, singular gyugh). As of 2007[update], Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural. The capital, Yerevan, also has the status of a community.[204] Additionally, Yerevan is divided into twelve semi-autonomous districts.
| Province | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2011 census)[205] | Population (2022 census)[206] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aragatsotn | Արագածոտն | Ashtarak | Աշտարակ | 2,756 | 132,925 | 128,941 |
| Ararat | Արարատ | Artashat | Արտաշատ | 2,090 | 260,367 | 248,982 |
| Armavir | Արմավիր | Armavir | Արմավիր | 1,242 | 265,770 | 253,493 |
| Gegharkunik | Գեղարքունիք | Gavar | Գավառ | 5,349 | 235,075 | 209,669 |
| Kotayk | Կոտայք | Hrazdan | Հրազդան | 2,086 | 254,397 | 269,883 |
| Lori | Լոռի | Vanadzor | Վանաձոր | 3,799 | 235,537 | 222,805 |
| Shirak | Շիրակ | Gyumri | Գյումրի | 2,680 | 251,941 | 235,484 |
| Syunik | Սյունիք | Kapan | Կապան | 4,506 | 141,771 | 114,488 |
| Tavush | Տավուշ | Ijevan | Իջևան | 2,704 | 128,609 | 114,940 |
| Vayots Dzor | Վայոց Ձոր | Yeghegnadzor | Եղեգնաձոր | 2,308 | 52,324 | 47,369 |
| Yerevan | Երևան | – | – | 223 | 1,060,138 | 1,086,677 |
Economy
The economy relies heavily on investment and support from Armenians abroad.[207] Before independence, Armenia's economy was largely industry-based – chemicals, electronics, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textile – and highly dependent on outside resources. The republic had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy.[67]
Agriculture accounted for less than 20% of both net material product and total employment before the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. After independence, the importance of agriculture in the economy increased markedly, its share at the end of the 1990s rising to more than 30% of GDP and more than 40% of total employment.[208] This increase in the importance of agriculture was attributable to food security needs of the population in the face of uncertainty during the first phases of transition and the collapse of the non-agricultural sectors of the economy in the early 1990s. As the economic situation stabilised and growth resumed, the share of agriculture in GDP dropped to slightly over 20% (2006 data), although the share of agriculture in employment remained more than 40%.[209]
Armenian mines produce copper, zinc, gold, and lead. The vast majority of energy is produced with fuel imported from Russia, including gas and nuclear fuel (for its one nuclear power plant); the main domestic energy source is hydroelectric. Small deposits of coal, gas, and petroleum exist but have not yet been developed.
Access to biocapacity in Armenia is lower than world average. In 2016, Armenia had 0.8 global hectares [210] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[211] In 2016 Armenia used 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person—their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use double as much biocapacity as Armenia contains. As a result, Armenia is running a biocapacity deficit.[210]
Like other newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, Armenia's economy suffers from the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 Spitak earthquake, which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. The conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. Shutdown of the nuclear power plant in 1989 led to the Armenian energy crisis of 1990s. The GDP fell nearly 60% between 1989 and 1993, but then resumed robust growth after the power plant was reopened in 1995.[208] The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first years after its introduction in 1993.
Nevertheless, the government was able to make wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. The 1994 ceasefire in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has also helped the economy. Armenia has had strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious-stone processing and jewelry making, information and communication technology and tourism are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors of the economy, such as agriculture.[212]
This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Loans to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit and stabilising the currency; developing private businesses; energy; agriculture; food processing; transportation; the health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation in the earthquake zone. The government joined the World Trade Organization on 5 February 2003. But one of the main sources of foreign direct investments remains the Armenian diaspora, which finances major parts of the reconstruction of infrastructure and other public projects. Being a growing democratic state, Armenia also hopes to get more financial aid from the Western World.
A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a law on privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program of state property privatization. Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption. However, unemployment, which was 18.5% in 2015,[213] still remains a major problem due to the influx of thousands of refugees from the Karabakh conflict.
In 2017, the economy grew by 7.5% due to rising copper prices.[161]
In 2022, Armenia's GDP stood at $39.4 billion, and enjoyed an economic freedom index of 65.3, according to Heritage Organisation.[214]
The Armenian economy is predicted to grow by 13% in 2022 due to a huge influx of Russian citizens.[215] The IMF's preliminary forecast as of March 2022 predicted growth of 1.5% for the year.[216]
Science and technology
Research spending is low in Armenia, averaging 0.25% of GDP over 2010–2013. However, the statistical record of research expenditure is incomplete, as expenditure by privately owned business enterprises is not surveyed in Armenia. The world average for domestic expenditure on research was 1.7% of GDP in 2013.[217]
The country's Strategy for the Development of Science 2011–2020 envisions that 'by 2020, Armenia is a country with a knowledge-based economy and is competitive within the European Research Area with its level of basic and applied research.' It fixes the following targets:[217]
- Creation of a system capable of sustaining the development of science and technology;
- Development of scientific potential, modernization of scientific infrastructure;
- Promotion of basic and applied research;
- Creation of a synergistic system of education, science and innovation; and
- Becoming a prime location for scientific specialization in the European Research Area.
Based on this strategy, the accompanying Action Plan was approved by the government in June 2011. It defines the following targets:[217]
- Improve the management system for science and technology and create the requisite conditions for sustainable development;
- Involve more young, talented people in education and research, while upgrading research infrastructure;
- Create the requisite conditions for the development of an integrated national innovation system; and
- Enhance international co-operation in research and development.
Although the Strategy clearly pursues a 'science push' approach, with public research institutes serving as the key policy target, it nevertheless mentions the goal of establishing an innovation system. However, the main driver of innovation, the business sector, is not mentioned. In between publishing the Strategy and Action Plan, the government issued a resolution in May 2010 on Science and Technology Development Priorities for 2010–2014. These priorities are:[217]
- Armenian studies, humanities and social sciences;
- Life sciences;
- Renewable energy, new energy sources;
- Advanced technologies, information technologies;
- Space, Earth sciences, sustainable use of natural resources; and
- Basic research promoting essential applied research.
The Law on the National Academy of Sciences was adopted in May 2011. This law is expected to play a key role in shaping the Armenian innovation system. It allows the National Academy of Sciences to extend its business activities to the commercialization of research results and the creation of spin-offs; it also makes provision for restructuring the National Academy of Sciences by combining institutes involved in closely related research areas into a single body. Three of these new centres are particularly relevant: the Centre for Biotechnology, the Centre for Zoology and Hydro-ecology and the Centre for Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry.[217]
The government is focusing its support on selected industrial sectors. More than 20 projects have been cofunded by the State Committee of Science in targeted branches: pharmaceuticals, medicine and biotechnology, agricultural mechanization and machine building, electronics, engineering, chemistry and, in particular, the sphere of information technology.[217]
Over the past decade, the government has made an effort to encourage science–industry linkages. The Armenian information technology sector has been particularly active: a number of public–private partnerships have been established between companies and universities, in order to give students marketable skills and generate innovative ideas at the interface of science and business. Examples are Synopsys Inc. and the Enterprise Incubator Foundation.[217] Armenia was ranked 63rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[218]
Demographics
Armenia has a population of 2,932,731 as of 2022[219] and is the third most densely populated of the former Soviet republics.[220] There has been a problem of population decline due to elevated levels of emigration after the break-up of the USSR.[221] In the past years emigration levels have declined and some population growth is observed since 2012.[222]
Armenia has a relatively large external diaspora (8 million by some estimates, greatly exceeding the 3 million population of Armenia itself), with communities existing across the globe. The largest Armenian communities outside of Armenia can be found in Russia, France, Iran, the United States, Georgia, Syria, Lebanon, Australia, Canada, Greece, Cyprus, Israel, Poland, Ukraine and Brazil. 40,000 to 70,000 Armenians still live in Turkey (mostly in and around Istanbul).[223]
About 1,000 Armenians reside in the Armenian Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem, a remnant of a once-larger community.[224] Italy is home to the San Lazzaro degli Armeni, an island located in the Venetian Lagoon, which is completely occupied by a monastery run by the Mechitarists, an Armenian Catholic congregation.[225] Approximately 139,000 Armenians lived in the de facto independent country Republic of Artsakh where they formed a majority before 1 October 2023, when almost the entire population of the region had fled to Armenia.[226][227]
Cities
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Yerevan .jpg) Gyumri |
1 | Yerevan | Yerevan | 1,086,677 | 11 | Artashat | Ararat | 19,020 |  Vanadzor ,_Ara_mountain_in_the_background.jpg) Abovyan |
| 2 | Gyumri | Shirak | 112,301 | 12 | Sevan | Gegharkunik | 18,705 | ||
| 3 | Vanadzor | Lori | 75,186 | 13 | Ijevan | Tavush | 18,689 | ||
| 4 | Abovyan | Kotayk | 46,434 | 14 | Gavar | Gegharkunik | 17,741 | ||
| 5 | Vagharshapat | Armavir | 44,837 | 15 | Artik | Shirak | 17,647 | ||
| 6 | Hrazdan | Kotayk | 44,231 | 16 | Goris | Syunik | 17,113 | ||
| 7 | Kapan | Syunik | 32,780 | 17 | Ararat | Ararat | 16,592 | ||
| 8 | Armavir | Armavir | 27,470 | 18 | Dilijan | Tavush | 15,914 | ||
| 9 | Charentsavan | Kotayk | 22,071 | 19 | Ashtarak | Aragatsotn | 15,686 | ||
| 10 | Masis | Ararat | 20,081 | 20 | Sisian | Syunik | 13,179 | ||
Ethnic groups
Settlement area of Armenians in early 20th century:
>50% 25–50% <25%
Ethnic Armenians make up 98.1% of the population. Yazidis make up 1.1%, and Russians 0.5%. Other minorities include Assyrians, Ukrainians, Greeks (usually called Caucasus Greeks), Kurds, Georgians, Belarusians, and Jews. There are also smaller communities of Vlachs, Mordvins, Ossetians, Udis, and Tats. Minorities of Poles and Caucasus Germans also exist though they are heavily Russified.[228] As of 2022, there are 31,077 Yazidis in Armenia.[229]
During the Soviet era, Azerbaijanis were historically the second largest population in the country, numbering 76,550 in 1922,[230] and forming about 2.5% in 1989.[231] However, due to the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, virtually all of them emigrated from Armenia to Azerbaijan. Conversely, Armenia received a large influx of Armenian refugees from Azerbaijan, thus giving Armenia a more homogeneous character.
According to Gallup research conducted in 2017 Armenia has one of the highest migrant acceptance (welcoming) rates in eastern Europe.[232]
Languages
Armenians have their own distinct alphabet and language,[233] which is the only official language. The alphabet was invented c. AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots and consists of thirty-nine letters, three of which were added during the Cilician period.[234] The main foreign languages that Armenians know are Russian and English. Due to its Soviet past, most of the old population can speak Russian quite well. According to a 2013 survey, 95% of Armenians said they had some knowledge of Russian (24% advanced, 59% intermediate) compared to 40% who said they knew some English (4% advanced, 16% intermediate and 20% beginner). However, more adults (50%) think that English should be taught in public secondary schools than those who prefer Russian (44%).[235]
Religion
Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, an event traditionally dated to AD 301.[236][237][238]
The predominant religion in Armenia is Christianity. Its roots go back to the 1st century AD, when it was founded by two of Jesus' twelve apostles – Thaddaeus and Bartholomew – who preached Christianity in Armenia between AD 40–60.
Over 93% of Christians in Armenia belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church,[239][240] which is in communion only with the churches comprising Oriental Orthodoxy—of which it is itself a member.
The Catholic Church maintains jurisdictions of both the Latin Church and Armenian Catholic Church in Armenia. Of note are the Mechitarists (also spelled "Mekhitarists" Armenian: Մխիթարեան), a congregation of Benedictine monks in the Armenian Catholic Church, founded in 1712 by Mekhitar of Sebaste. They are best known for their series of scholarly publications of ancient Armenian versions of otherwise lost ancient Greek texts.
The Armenian Evangelical Church has several thousand members throughout the country.
Other Christian denominations in Armenia are the Pentecostal branches of Protestant community such as the Word of Life, the Armenian Brotherhood Church,[241] the Baptists (which are known as one of the oldest existing denominations in Armenia, and were permitted by the authorities of the Soviet Union),[242][243] and Presbyterians.[244]
Armenia is also home to a Russian community of Molokans which practice a form of Spiritual Christianity originated from the Russian Orthodox Church.[245]
The Yazidis, who live in the western part of the country, practice Yazidism.[246] The world's largest Yazidi temple, Quba Mêrê Dîwanê, was completed in 2019[247] in the village of Aknalich.[229]
There is a Jewish community in Armenia of approximately 750 people since independence with most emigrants leaving for Israel. There are currently two synagogues in Armenia – one in the capital, Yerevan, and the other in the city of Sevan located near Lake Sevan.
Health care
Healthcare in Armenia has undergone significant changes since independence in 1991. Initially, the Soviet healthcare system was highly centralized and provided free medical assistance to all citizens. After independence, the healthcare system underwent reform and primary care services have been free of charge since 2006. Despite improvements in accessibility and the implementation of an Open Enrollment program, out-of-pocket health expenditures remain high and corruption among healthcare professionals remains a concern.[248] In 2019, healthcare became free for all citizens under the age of 18 and the number of people receiving free or subsidized care under the Basic Benefits Package was increased.[249][250]
After a significant decline in earlier decades, crude[h] birth rates in Armenia slightly increased from 13.0 (per 1000 people) in the year 1998 to 14.2 in 2015;[251] this timeframe also showed a similar trajectory in the crude death rate, which grew from 8.6 to 9.3.[252] Life expectancy at birth at 74.8 years was the 4th-highest among the Post-Soviet states in 2014.[253]
Education
In medieval times, the University of Gladzor and University of Tatev took an important role for Armenian education.[citation needed]
A literacy rate of 100% was reported as early as 1960.[254] In the communist era, Armenian education followed the standard Soviet model of complete state control (from Moscow) of curricula and teaching methods and close integration of education activities with other aspects of society, such as politics, culture, and the economy.[254]
In the 1988–89 school year, 301 students per 10,000 were in specialized secondary or higher education, a figure slightly lower than the Soviet average.[254] In 1989, some 58% of Armenians over age fifteen had completed their secondary education, and 14% had a higher education.[254] In the 1990–91 school year, the estimated 1,307 primary and secondary schools were attended by 608,800 students.[254] Another seventy specialised secondary institutions had 45,900 students, and 68,400 students were enrolled in a total of ten postsecondary institutions that included universities.[254] In addition, 35% of eligible children attended preschools.[254] In 1992 Armenia's largest institution of higher learning, Yerevan State University, had eighteen departments, including ones for social sciences, sciences, and law.[254] Its faculty numbered about 1,300 teachers and its student population about 10,000 students.[254] The National Polytechnic University of Armenia is operating since 1933.[254]
In the early 1990s, Armenia made substantial changes to the centralised and regimented Soviet system.[254] Because at least 98% of students in higher education were Armenian, curricula began to emphasise Armenian history and culture.[254] Armenian became the dominant language of instruction, and many schools that had taught in Russian closed by the end of 1991.[254] Russian was still widely taught, however, as a second language.[254]
In 2014, the National Program for Educational Excellence embarked on creating an internationally competitive and academically rigorous alternative educational program (the Araratian Baccalaureate) for Armenian schools and increasing the importance and status of the teacher's role in society.[255][256]
The Ministry of Education and Science is responsible for regulation of the sector. Primary and secondary education in Armenia is free, and completion of secondary school is compulsory.[254] Higher education in Armenia is harmonized with the Bologna process and the European Higher Education Area. The Armenian National Academy of Sciences plays an important role in postgraduate education.
Schooling takes 12 years in Armenia and breaks down into primary (4 years), middle (5 years) and high school (3 years). Schools engage a 10-grade mark system. The government also supports Armenian schools outside of Armenia.
Gross enrollment in tertiary education at 44% in 2015 surpassed peer countries of the South Caucasus but remained below the average for Europe and Central Asia.[257] However, public spending per student in tertiary education in GDP-ratio terms is one of the lowest for post-USSR countries (for which data was available).[258]
Culture
Architecture
Armenian architecture, as it originates in an earthquake-prone region, tends to be built with this hazard in mind. Armenian buildings tend to be rather low-slung and thick-walled in design. Armenia has abundant resources of stone, and relatively few forests, so stone was nearly always used throughout for large buildings. Small buildings and most residential buildings were normally constructed of lighter materials, and hardly any early examples survive, as at the abandoned medieval capital of Ani.[259]
Music and dance
Armenian music is a mix of indigenous folk music, perhaps best-represented by Djivan Gasparyan's well-known duduk music, as well as light pop, and extensive Christian music.
Instruments like the duduk, dhol, zurna, and kanun are commonly found in Armenian folk music. Artists such as Sayat Nova are famous due to their influence in the development of Armenian folk music. One of the oldest types of Armenian music is the Armenian chant which is the most common kind of religious music in Armenia. Many of these chants are ancient in origin, extending to pre-Christian times, while others are relatively modern, including several composed by Saint Mesrop Mashtots, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet. Whilst under Soviet rule, the Armenian classical music composer Aram Khatchaturian became internationally well known for his music, for various ballets and the Sabre Dance from his composition for the ballet Gayane.
The Armenian Genocide caused widespread emigration that led to the settlement of Armenians in various countries in the world. Armenians kept to their traditions and certain diasporans rose to fame with their music. In the post-genocide Armenian community of the United States, the so-called "kef" style Armenian dance music, using Armenian and Middle Eastern folk instruments (often electrified/amplified) and some western instruments, was popular. This style preserved the folk songs and dances of Western Armenia, and many artists also played the contemporary popular songs of Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries from which the Armenians emigrated.
Richard Hagopian is perhaps the most famous artist of the traditional "kef" style and the Vosbikian Band was notable in the 1940s and 1950s for developing their own style of "kef music" heavily influenced by the popular American Big Band Jazz of the time. Later, stemming from the Middle Eastern Armenian diaspora and influenced by Continental European (especially French) pop music, the Armenian pop music genre grew to fame in the 1960s and 1970s with artists such as Adiss Harmandian and Harout Pamboukjian performing to the Armenian diaspora and Armenia; also with artists such as Sirusho, performing pop music combined with Armenian folk music in today's entertainment industry.
Other Armenian diasporans that rose to fame in classical or international music circles are world-renowned French-Armenian singer and composer Charles Aznavour, pianist Sahan Arzruni, prominent opera sopranos such as Hasmik Papian and more recently Isabel Bayrakdarian and Anna Kasyan. Certain Armenians settled to sing non-Armenian tunes such as the heavy metal band System of a Down (which nonetheless often incorporates traditional Armenian instrumentals and styling into their songs) or pop star Cher. In the Armenian diaspora, Armenian revolutionary songs are popular with the youth. These songs encourage Armenian patriotism and are generally about Armenian history and national heroes.
Art
Yerevan Vernissage (arts and crafts market), close to Republic Square, bustles with hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts on weekends and Wednesdays (though the selection is much reduced mid-week). The market offers woodcarving, antiques, fine lace, and the hand-knotted wool carpets and kilims that are a Caucasus speciality. Obsidian, which is found locally, is crafted into assortment of jewellery and ornamental objects. Armenian gold smithery enjoys a long tradition, populating one corner of the market with a selection of gold items. Soviet relics and souvenirs of recent Russian manufacture – nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes and so on – are also available at the Vernisage.
Across from the Opera House, a popular art market fills another city park on the weekends. Armenia's long history as a crossroads of the ancient world has resulted in a landscape with innumerable fascinating archaeological sites to explore. Medieval, Iron Age, Bronze Age and even Stone Age sites are all within a few hours drive from the city. All but the most spectacular remain virtually undiscovered, allowing visitors to view churches and fortresses in their original settings.
The National Art Gallery in Yerevan has more than 16,000 works that date back to the Middle Ages, which indicate Armenia's rich tales and stories of the times. It houses paintings by many European masters as well. The Modern Art Museum, the Children's Picture Gallery, and the Martiros Saryan Museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in Yerevan. Moreover, many private galleries are in operation, with many more opening every year, featuring rotating exhibitions and sales.
On 13 April 2013, the Armenian government announced a change in law to allow freedom of panorama for 3D works of art.[260]
Media
Television, magazines, and newspapers are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Armenia guarantees freedom of speech and Armenia ranks 61st in the 2020 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders, between Georgia and Poland.[261] Armenia's press freedom rose considerably following the 2018 Velvet Revolution.[262]
As of 2020, the biggest issue facing press freedom in Armenia is judicial harassment of journalists, specifically defamation suits and attacks on journalists' right to protect sources,[263] as well as excessive responses to combat disinformation spread by social media users. Reporters Without Borders also cites continued concerns about lack of transparency regarding ownership of media outlets.[261]
Cinema
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2024) |
Cinema in Armenia was born on 16 April 1923, when the Armenian State Committee of Cinema was established by a decree of the Soviet Armenian government.
However, the first Armenian film with Armenian subject called "Haykakan Sinema" was produced earlier in 1912 in Cairo by Armenian-Egyptian publisher Vahan Zartarian. The film was premiered in Cairo on 13 March 1913.[264]
In March 1924, the first Armenian film studio; Armenfilm (Armenian: Հայֆիլմ "Hayfilm", Russian: Арменкино "Armenkino") was established in Yerevan, starting with a documentary film called Soviet Armenia.
Namus was the first Armenian silent black-and-white film, directed by Hamo Beknazarian in 1925, based on a play of Alexander Shirvanzade, describing the ill fate of two lovers, who were engaged by their families to each other since childhood, but because of violations of namus (a tradition of honor), the girl was married by her father to another person. The first sound film, Pepo was shot in 1935 and directed by Hamo Beknazarian.
Cuisine
|
Armenian cuisine is closely related to eastern and Mediterranean cuisine; various spices, vegetables, fish, and fruits combine to present unique dishes. The main characteristics of Armenian cuisine are a reliance on the quality of the ingredients rather than heavily spicing food, the use of herbs, the use of wheat in a variety of forms, of legumes, nuts, and fruit (as a main ingredient as well as to sour food), and the stuffing of a wide variety of leaves.
The pomegranate, with its symbolic association with fertility, represents the nation. The apricot is the national fruit.
Sport
| This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2024) |
.jpg)
A wide array of sports are played in Armenia, the most popular among them being wrestling, weightlifting, judo, association football, chess, and boxing. Armenia's mountainous terrain provides great opportunities for the practice of sports like skiing and climbing. Being a landlocked country, water sports can only be practised on lakes, notably Lake Sevan. Competitively, Armenia has been successful in chess, weightlifting and wrestling at the international level. Armenia is also an active member of the international sports community, with full membership in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). It also hosts the Pan-Armenian Games.
Prior to 1992, Armenians would participate in the Olympics representing the USSR. As part of the Soviet Union, Armenia was very successful, winning plenty of medals and helping the USSR win the medal standings at the Olympics on numerous occasions. The first medal won by an Armenian in modern Olympic history was by Hrant Shahinyan (sometimes spelled as Grant Shaginyan), who won two golds and two silvers in gymnastics at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. To highlight the level of success of Armenians in the Olympics, Shahinyan was quoted as saying:
"Armenian sportsmen had to outdo their opponents by several notches for the shot at being accepted into any Soviet team. But those difficulties notwithstanding, 90 percent of Armenian athletes on Soviet Olympic teams came back with medals."[265]
Armenia first participated at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona under a unified CIS team, where it was very successful, winning three golds and one silver in weightlifting, wrestling and sharp shooting, despite only having five athletes. Since the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Armenia has participated as an independent nation.
Armenia participates in the Summer Olympic Games in boxing, wrestling, weightlifting, judo, gymnastics, track and field, diving, swimming and sharp shooting. It also participates in the Winter Olympic Games in alpine skiing, cross-country skiing and figure skating.
Football is also popular in Armenia. The most successful team was the FC Ararat Yerevan team of the 1970s who won the Soviet Cup in 1973 and 1975 and the Soviet Top League in 1973. The latter achievement saw FC Ararat gain entry to the European Cup where – despite a home victory in the second leg – they lost on aggregate at the quarter-final stage to eventual winner FC Bayern Munich. Armenia competed internationally as part of the USSR national football team until the Armenian national football team was formed in 1992 after the split of the Soviet Union. Armenia have never qualified for a major tournament although recent improvements saw the team to achieve 44th position in the FIFA World Rankings in September 2011. The national team is controlled by the Football Federation of Armenia. The Armenian Premier League is the highest level football competition in Armenia, and has been dominated by FC Pyunik in recent seasons. The league currently consists of eight teams and relegates to the Armenian First League.
Armenia and the Armenian diaspora have produced many successful footballers, including Henrikh Mkhitaryan, Youri Djorkaeff, Alain Boghossian, Andranik Eskandarian, Andranik Teymourian, Edgar Manucharyan, Khoren Oganesian and Nikita Simonyan. Djokaeff and Boghossian won the 1998 FIFA World Cup with France, Teymourian competed in the 2006 World Cup for Iran and Manucharyan played in the Dutch Eredivisie for Ajax. Mkhitaryan has been one of the most successful Armenian footballers in recent years, playing for international clubs such as Borussia Dortmund, Manchester United, Arsenal, A.S. Roma and currently for Inter Milan.[266]
Wrestling has been a successful sport in the Olympics for Armenia. At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Armen Nazaryan won the gold in the Men's Greco-Roman Flyweight (52 kg) category and Armen Mkrtchyan won the silver in Men's Freestyle Paperweight (48 kg) category, securing Armenia's first two medals in its Olympic history.
Traditional Armenian wrestling is called Kokh and practised in traditional garb; it was one of the influences included in the Soviet combat sport of Sambo, which is also very popular.[267]
The government of Armenia budgets about $2.8 million annually for sports and gives it to the National Committee of Physical Education and Sports, the body that determines which programs should benefit from the funds.[265]
Due to the lack of success lately on the international level, in recent years, Armenia has rebuilt 16 Soviet-era sports schools and furnished them with new equipment for a total cost of $1.9 million. The rebuilding of the regional schools was financed by the Armenian government. $9.3 million has been invested in the resort town of Tsaghkadzor to improve the winter sports infrastructure because of dismal performances at recent winter sports events. In 2005, a cycling centre was opened in Yerevan with the aim of helping produce world class Armenian cyclists. The government has also promised a cash reward of $700,000 to Armenians who win a gold medal at the Olympics.[265]
Armenia has also been very successful in chess, winning the World Champion in 2011 and the World Chess Olympiad on three occasions.[268]
See also
.svg){kind=small}
- Armenians
- History of Armenia
- Index of Armenia-related articles
- List of people on coins of Armenia
- Outline of Armenia
Explanatory notes
- ^ The list recognises the language of Yazidis, as separate from Kurdish.
- ^ Through the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
- ^ /ɑːrˈmiːniə/ ar-MEE-nee-ə[9]
Armenian: Հայաստան, romanized: Hayastan IPA: [hɑjɑsˈtɑn] - ^ Armenian: Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, romanized: Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun, IPA: [hɑjɑstɑˈni hɑnɾɑpɛtutʰˈjun]
- ^ Smaller nations that have claimed a prior official adoption of Christianity include Osroene, the Silures, and San Marino. See Timeline of official adoptions of Christianity.
- ^ The republic has separation of church and state.
- ^ On 12 June 2024, Armenia announced that it would formally withdraw from the CSTO at a later unspecified date
- ^ Crude rates are not age-adjusted.
Source attribution
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 324–26, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
Citations
- ^ "Constitution of Armenia, Article 20". president.am. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "States Parties to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and their regional or minority languages". Council of Europe. 1 November 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
- ^ a b "CIA World Factbook". 5 March 2024. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
- ^ "The World Fact Book – Armenia". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- ^ "Average de jure Population Number, thousand pers.* / 2024".
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024". Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- ^ "Gini index - Armenia". World Bank. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
- ^ a b "Human Development Report 2023/2024". United Nations Development Programme. 19 March 2024. Archived from the original on 19 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
- ^ "Armenia Archived 10 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine." Dictionary.com Unabridged. 2015.
- ^ a b The UN classification of world regions Archived 25 June 2002 at the Wayback Machine places Armenia in West Asia; the CIA World Factbook "Armenia". The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2010. "Armenia". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 16 April 2009., "Armenia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 April 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2009., Calendario Atlante De Agostini (in Italian) (111 ed.). Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini. 2015. p. sub voce. ISBN 9788851124908. and Oxford Reference Online "World Encyclopedia". Oxford Reference. World Encyclopedia. Oxford Reference Online. 2004. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001. ISBN 9780199546091. also place Armenia in Asia.
- ^ "General information about Republic of Armenia". Armenia: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Armenia). Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
The country is situated in western part of Asia, occupies the north-eastern part of Armenian plateau – between Caucasus and Nearest Asia
- ^ a b The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History. Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-19-510507-0.
- ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 30. ISBN 978-1884964985. OCLC 37931209.
Armenian presence in their historical seats should then be sought at some time before c 600 BC; [...] Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism.
- ^ Robert Drews (2017). Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0367886004. p. 228: "The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it as brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; [...] Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo-European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age."
- ^ (Garsoïan, Nina (1997). R.G. Hovannisian (ed.). Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. Vol. 1. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 81.)
- ^ Stringer, Martin D. (2005). A Sociological History of Christian Worship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-521-81955-8.
- ^ Grousset, René (1947). Histoire de l'Arménie (1984 ed.). Payot. p. 122.. Estimated dates vary from 284 to 314. Garsoïan (op.cit. p. 82), following the research of Ananian, favours the latter.
- ^ "Constitution of Armenia - Library - The President of Armenia". president.am. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ Acharian, Hrachia (1946). Hayocʿ anjnanunneri baṙaran [Dictionary of Personal Names of Armenians] (in Armenian). Vol. 3. Yerevan: Yerevan University Press. p. 29. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
- ^ Ագաթանգեղոս §§ 13 (ի Հայաստան աշխարհէս), 16 (Հայաստան աշխարհիս 2x, ի Հայաստան աշխարհիս), 35 (Հայաստան աշխարհին), 160 (Հայաստան աշխարհիս), 249 (Հայաստան աշխարհիս), 715 (Հայաստան աշխարհիս), 776 (Հայաստան աշխարհին), 784 (Հայաստան աշխարհին), 796 (ի մէջ Հայաստան աշխարհի), 808 (հասանէին ի Հայաստան աշխարհն)։
- ^ Ագաթանգեղոս § 885 (ի Հայաստան երկրին)
- ^ Փաւստոս Բուզանդ 1883=1984, էջ 1 (Հայաստան աշխարհին)
- ^ Փաւստոս Բուզանդ 1883=1984, 4.բ, էջ 56 (Հայաստան երկրին)
- ^ 904=1985, էջ 2 (Հայաստան աշխարհիս), 110 (կանայս ի Հայաստան աշխարհիս)
- ^ Կորիւն 1994, էջ 83 (Հայաստան աշխարհի), 93 (Հայաստան աշխարհին), 103 (ի Հայաստան աշխարհին), 120 (ի Հայաստան աշխարհէս)
- ^ ժը (սեռ. Հայաստանեայց, բացառ. ի Հայաստանեայց), տես Աբգարյան 1979, էջ 66, 90
- ^ Razmik Panossian, The Armenians: From Kings And Priests to Merchants And Commissars, Columbia University Press (2006), ISBN 978-0-231-13926-7, p. 106.
- ^ Rafael Ishkhanyan, "Illustrated History of Armenia," Yerevan, 1989
- ^ Elisabeth Bauer. Armenia: Past and Present (1981), p. 49
- ^ "Χαλύβοισι πρὸς νότον Ἀρμένιοι ὁμουρέουσι (The Armenians border on the Chalybes to the south)". Chahin, Mark (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia. London: Routledge. p. fr. 203. ISBN 978-0-7007-1452-0.
- ^ Xenophon. Anabasis. pp. IV.v.2–9.
- ^ Ibp Inc (1 September 2013). Armenia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments. International Business Publications, USA. p. 42. ISBN 978-1438773827.
- ^ Archi, Alfonso (2016). "Egypt or Iran in the Ebla Texts?". Orientalia. 85: 3. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
- ^ Kroonen G, Barjamovic G, Peyrot M (9 May 2018). "Linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. 2018: Early Indo-European languages, Anatolian, Tocharian and Indo-Iranian". Zenodo: 3. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1240524. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
- ^ Armen Petrosyan. The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic. Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. p. 184. [1] Archived 9 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Armen Petrosyan. The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic. Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. pp. 166–167. [2] Archived 9 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Moses of Chorene,The History of Armenia Archived 19 April 2003 at the Wayback Machine, Book 1, Ch. 12 (in Russian)
- ^ History of Armenia by Father Michael Chamich from B.C. 2247 to the Year of Christ 1780, or 1229 of the Armenian era, Bishop's College Press, Calcutta, 1827, p. 19: "[Aram] was the first to raise the Armenian name to any degree of renown; so that contemporary nations... called them the Aramians, or followers of Aram, a name which has been corrupted into Armenians; and the country they inhabited, by universal consent, took the name of Armenia."
- ^ a b "Charles, R.H. (1913). The Book of Jubilees 9:5 from The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. Clarendon Press". www.pseudepigrapha.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ^ a b "Charles, R.H. (1913). The Book of Jubilees 8:21 from The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. Clarendon Press". digitalcommons.andrews.edu. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ^ Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. p. Book 1, section 143. Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
- ^ Dolukhanov, Pavel; Aslanian, Stepan; Kolpakov, Evgeny; Belyaeva, Elena (2004). "Prehistoric Sites in Northern Armenia". Antiquity. 78 (301). Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
- ^ Adler, D. S.; Wilkinson, K. N.; Blockley, S.; Mark, D. F.; Pinhasi, R.; Schmidt-Magee, B. A.; Nahapetyan, S.; Mallol, C.; Berna, F. (26 September 2014). "Early Levallois technology and the Lower to Middle Paleolithic transition in the Southern Caucasus". Science. 345 (6204): 1609–1613. Bibcode:2014Sci...345.1609A. doi:10.1126/science.1256484. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25258079. S2CID 10266660.
- ^ "325,000 Year Old Stone Age Site In Armenia Leads To Human Technology Rethink". 28 September 2014. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
- ^ "A View from the Highlands: The History of Shengavit, Armenia in the 4th and 3rd Millennia BCE". The Shelby White and Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ "10 World's Oldest Things from Armenia". 17 December 2014.
- ^ "Armenian cave yields what may be world's oldest leather shoe". CNN. 9 June 2010. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
- ^ "5,900-year-old women's skirt discovered in Armenian cave". News Armenia. 13 September 2011. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
- ^ "Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave". National Geographic. 12 January 2011. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
- ^ Greppin, John A. C.; Diakonoff, I. M. (1991). "Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 111 (4): 720–730. doi:10.2307/603403. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 603403.
- ^ Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, Jean M. Evans, Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.)[3] (2008) pp. 92
- ^ Kossian, Aram V. (1997), The Mushki Problem Reconsidered, archived from the original on 29 August 2019, retrieved 31 August 2019 pp. 254
- ^ Peter I. Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree Ancient Europe, 8000 B.C. to A.D. 1000: An Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World. Archived 9 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004 ISBN 978-0684806686
- ^ Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301-17
- ^ Petrosyan, Armen (2007). "Towards the Origins of the Armenian People: The Problem of Identification of the Proto-Armenians: A Critical Review (in English)". Journal for the Society of Armenian Studies. 16: 49–54. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
- ^ Kurkjian, Vahan (1958). History of Armenia (1964 ed.). Michigan: Armenian General Benevolent Union. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia. 1987. p. v. 12.
- ^ Movsisyan, Artak (2000). Sacred Highland: Armenia in the spiritual conception of the Near East. Yerevan.
- ^ Kavoukjian, Martiros (1982). The Genesis of Armenian People. Montreal.
- ^ Bournoutian, George A. (2003). A concise history of the Armenian people: (from ancient times to the present) (2nd ed.). Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers. ISBN 9781568591414.
- ^ История Востока: в шести томах. Т. 1. Восток в древности / Отв. ред. В. А. Якобсен. — М.: Вост. лит., 1997. — 688 с. — ISBN 5-02-017936-1. Раздел «Закавказье и сопредельные страны в период эллинизма Archived 2015-07-12 at the Wayback Machine»
- ^ "Report on the Activities on the national standardization of the names of geographical objects of the Republic of Armenia" (PDF). United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Svenska forskningsinstitutet i Istanbul (1993). Lennart Rydén; Jan Olof Rosenqvist (eds.). Aspects of Late Antiquity and Early Byzantium: Papers Read at a Colloquium Held at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul 31 May-5 June, 1992. Swedish Research Institute. ISBN 9789186884055. OCLC 1131566057.
- ^ Joshua J. Mark. "Assyria". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
- ^ Charles W. Hartley; G. Bike Yazicioğlu; Adam T. Smith, eds. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-107-01652-1.
...the unique temple-tomb at Garni, just east of Yerevan – the only Greco-Roman colonnaded building anywhere in the Soviet Union.
- ^ Melton, J.G.; Baumann, M. (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices [6 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 470. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ a b c "The World Factbook: Armenia". CIA. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2007.
- ^ Brunner, Borgna (2006). Time Almanac with Information Please 2007. New York: Time Home Entertainment. p. 685. ISBN 978-1-933405-49-0.
- ^ a b Mary Boyce. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Archived 19 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Psychology Press, 2001 ISBN 0-415-23902-8 p. 84
- ^ Ohannes Geukjian (13 May 2016). Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy. Routledge. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-317-14074-0.
- ^ Razmik Panossian (27 May 2006). The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. Columbia University Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-231-51133-9. OCLC 1017996521.
- ^ Stokes, Jamie, ed. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0.
Etchmiatzin is located in the west of modern Armenia, close to the border with Turkey, and its fourth-century cathedral is generally regarded as the oldest in the world.
- ^ Bauer-Manndorff, Elisabeth (1981). Armenia: Past and Present. Lucerne: Reich Verlag. OCLC 8063377.
Etchmiadzin, with the world's oldest cathedral and the seat of the Catholicos, draws tourists from all over the world.
- ^ Utudjian, Édouard (1968). Armenian Architecture: fourth to 17th Century. Paris: Editions A. Morancé. p. 7. OCLC 464421.
...the oldest cathedral in Christendom, that of Etchmiadzin, founded in the fourth century.
- ^ Canard & Cahen 1960.
- ^ S. Payaslian (13 March 2008). The History of Armenia: From the Origins to the Present. Springer. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-0-230-60858-0. OCLC 1001334466.
- ^ Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann Katharine Swynford & Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. pp. 231–32.
- ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.); N. Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York; Speros P. (jr.) Vryonis; Thomas F. Mathews; Jeffrey C. Anderson; Annemarie Weyl Carr; Henry Maguire; Robert G. Ousterhout; Ioli Kalavrezou; Eunice Dauterman Maguire; Olenka Z. Pevny; Joseph D. Alchermes; S. Peter Cowe; Thelma K. Thomas; Jaroslav Folda; Priscilla Soucek (1997). Helen C. Evans; William D. Wixom; William D.. Wixom (eds.). The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843-1261. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 361–. ISBN 978-0-87099-777-8. OCLC 1008249298.
- ^ Ghazarian, J.G. (2000). The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia During the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins, 1080-1393. Caucasus world. Curzon. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7007-1418-6. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian (11 February 2004). The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times: Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-4039-6422-9. OCLC 805125065.
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian (11 February 2004). The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times: Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 23–31. ISBN 978-1-4039-6422-9. OCLC 805125065.
- ^ Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-78023-070-2. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ Ward, Steven R. (2014). Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-62616-032-3. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ Herzig, Edmund; Kurkchiyan, Marina (2004). The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-79837-6. Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ H. Nahavandi, Y. Bomati, Shah Abbas, empereur de Perse (1587–1629) (Perrin, Paris, 1998)
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 33, 351. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ Dowling, Timothy C. (2014). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 728–. ISBN 978-1-59884-948-6. Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
- ^ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood Press. p. 310. ISBN 978-0-313-34497-8. Archived from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ Kirakosian, J. S. (1972). Hayastane michazkayin divanakitut'yan ew sovetakan artakin kaghakakanut'yan pastateghterum, 1828–1923 [Armenia in the documents of international diplomacy and Soviet foreign policy, 1828–1923] (in Armenian). Yerevan. pp. 149–358.
- ^ Kifner, John (9 April 2018). "Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview". New York Times. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Akçam, Taner (4 May 2023). "The Armenian Genocide". The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–92. doi:10.1017/9781108767118.004. ISBN 978-1-108-76711-8.
- ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (2002), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah [The Armenian genocide and the Shoah] (in German), Chronos, p. 114, ISBN 978-3-0340-0561-6
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. (1980), Armenia: The Survival of A Nation, London: Croom Helm, pp. 200–03
- ^ "Extensive bibliography by University of Michigan on the Armenian genocide". Umd.umich.edu. Archived from the original on 16 November 2001. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian genocide. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-59420-100-4.
- ^ Robert Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian genocide and the Holocaust, University of Chicago Press, 15 October 1992, p. 147
- ^ Q&A: Armenian genocide dispute Archived 1 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 10 July 2008.
- ^ "Tsitsernakaberd Memorial Complex". Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ Vartan Matiossian (23 September 2021). The Politics of Naming the Armenian Genocide: Language, History and 'Medz Yeghern'. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 125–. ISBN 978-0-7556-4109-3. OCLC 1247655673.
- ^ Hille, Charlotte Mathilde Louise (2010). State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 151. ISBN 978-90-04-17901-1.
- ^ Zarifian, J. (2024). The United States and the Armenian Genocide: History, Memory, Politics. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-9788-3794-2. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Herzig, E.; Kurkchiyan, M. (2004). The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity. Caucasus World: Peoples of the Caucasus. Taylor & Francis. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-135-79837-6. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. (1968). "The Allies and Armenia, 1915-18". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (1). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 145–168. doi:10.1177/002200946800300108. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 259971.
- ^ Arhire, S.; Roşu, T. (2019). The Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) and Its Aftermath: Settlements, Problems and Perceptions. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-5275-4395-9. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard, and Simon Payaslian. Armenian Cilicia. Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, Inc., 2008. 483. Print.
- ^ Grote, R.; Röder, T.J. (2016). Constitutionalism, Human Rights, and Islam after the Arab Spring. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 978-0-19-062765-2. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ Richard Pipes (25 April 1997). The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923, First Edition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-41764-9. OCLC 1259423784.
- ^ a b "The Soviet Period – History – Azerbaijan – Asia". Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
- ^ a b Закавказская федерация. Большая советская энциклопедия, 3-е изд., гл. ред. А. М. Прохоров. Москва: Советская энциклопедия, 1972. Т. 9 (A. M. Prokhorov; et al., eds. (1972). "Transcaucasian Federation". Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian). Vol. 9. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia.)
- ^ C. Mouradian, L'Armenie sovietique, pp. 278–79
- ^ "Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic Archived 3 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979).
- ^ Naegele, Jolyon (9 April 2008). "Azerbaijan: Armenians and Azerbaijanis Remember Suffering". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
- ^ Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2004. p. 74 by Imogen Gladman, Taylor & Francis Group
- ^ Notes from Baku: Black January Archived 27 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Rufat Ahmedov. EurasiaNet Human Rights.
- ^ "The March Referendum". Archived from the original on 15 October 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
- ^ a b Croissant, Michael P. (1998). The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications. London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-96241-8.
- ^ "The Ties That Divide". Global Heritage Fund. 17 June 2006. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ De Waal, Thomas (2004). Black Garden: Armenia And Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8147-1945-9.
- ^ A Conflict That Can Be Resolved in Time: Nagorno-Karabakh Archived 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. International Herald Tribune. 29 November 2003.
- ^ "Heritage Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ "EU negotiations with Armenia and Georgia on Free Trade Agreements successfully concluded". EPP Group. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ "Armenia will significantly increase its revenues by reinforcing its role of a transit country between Europe, CIS and Middle East". Arka News Agency. 28 March 2013. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ "Europe Could Draw Gas Through Iran–Armenia Pipeline". European dialogue. Archived from the original on 17 February 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ ""Velvet Revolution" Takes Armenia into the Unknown". Crisis Group. 20 November 2020. Archived from the original on 26 April 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
- ^ "Armenia: Armen Sarkissian elected into new, less powerful presidential role | DW | 02.03.2018". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
- ^ "Pashinyan elected as Armenia's new prime minister". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
- ^ "Fighting over Nagorno-Karabakh goes on despite US mediation". Associated Press. 24 October 2020. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Fury and celebrations as Russia brokers peace deal to end Nagorno-Karabakh war". The Independent. 11 November 2020. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Armenians vent fury at West after truce in bloody war in Nagorno-Karabakh". CBC News. 11 November 2020. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Nikol Pashinyan officially appointed Armenia's prime minister". The New Indian Express. 2 August 2021. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
- ^ "Armenian president resigns over lack of influence". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
- ^ "Vahagn Khachaturyan elected new Armenian president". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 15 October 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ^ Wesolowsky, Tony (7 May 2022). "Facing Mass Protests Calling For Him To Resign, Armenia's Prime Minister Is Running Out Of Options". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ "Armenia, Azerbaijan: Baku Launches Military Operation In Nagorno-Karabakh". Stratfor. 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
...the Russian peacekeeping contingent is incapable of preventing Azerbaijan's seizure of the region, despite this being a clear violation of the November 2020 ceasefire brokered by Russia that ended the last war.
- ^ "Joint statement on Azerbaijan's attack on Nagorno-Karabakh". European Parliament. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
We condemn in the strongest terms today's pre-planned and unjustified attack of Azerbaijan against Nagorno-Karabakh...We recall that the attack takes place in the context of a major humanitarian crisis in Nagorno-Karabakh, following Azerbaijan's blockade of the Lachin Corridor for the past nine months, in violation of Baku's commitments under the ceasefire statement of 9 November 2020 and of the legally binding orders of the International Court of Justice. Humanitarian access to Nagorno-Karabakh needs to be fully and permanently restored.
- ^ "Azerbaijani forces strike Armenian-controlled Karabakh, raising risk of new Caucasus war". Reuters. 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ Ilyushina, Mary (19 September 2023). "Fighting flares between Azerbaijan and Armenia in Nagorno-Karabakh". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
Azerbaijan and Armenia have repeatedly clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh, which is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan but largely populated by ethnic Armenians and largely governed by the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh.
- ^ Roth, Andrew (19 September 2023). "Azerbaijan launches 'anti-terrorist' campaign in disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Russian-mediated ceasefire announced in Nagorno-Karabakh". Armenpress. 20 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
- ^ "Ethnic Armenians accept Russia ceasefire plan after Azerbaijan offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh". CNN. 20 September 2023. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- ^ "BREAKING: Stepanakert to disband army in ceasefire deal". CIVILNET. 20 September 2023. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- ^ "МВД Нагорного Карабаха обвинило Азербайджан в нарушении договора о прекращении огня". Meduza. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- ^ "Aserbaidschan soll Waffenruhe gebrochen haben". Rheinische Post. 21 September 2023. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- ^ Moreno Ocampo, Luis (22 September 2023). "Call what is happening in Nagorno-Karabakh by its proper name". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
- ^ Central Intelligence Agency (2014). The CIA World Factbook 2015. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 5241. ISBN 978-1-62914-903-5.
- ^ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant; Noss, Reed; Hansen, Matt; Locke, Harvey; Ellis, Erle C; Jones, Benjamin; Barber, Charles Victor; Hayes, Randy; Kormos, Cyril; Martin, Vance; Crist, Eileen; Sechrest, Wes; Price, Lori; Baillie, Jonathan E. M.; Weeden, Don; Suckling, Kierán; Davis, Crystal; Sizer, Nigel; Moore, Rebecca; Thau, David; Birch, Tanya; Potapov, Peter; Turubanova, Svetlana; Tyukavina, Alexandra; de Souza, Nadia; Pintea, Lilian; Brito, José C.; Llewellyn, Othman A.; Miller, Anthony G.; Patzelt, Annette; Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Timberlake, Jonathan; Klöser, Heinz; Shennan-Farpón, Yara; Kindt, Roeland; Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow; van Breugel, Paulo; Graudal, Lars; Voge, Maianna; Al-Shammari, Khalaf F.; Saleem, Muhammad (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
- ^ "Geographic Characteristic of The Republic of Armenia" (PDF). Marzes of the Republic of Armenia in Figures, 2002–2006. National Statistical Service of the Republic of Armenia. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ "Percentage of Mountain Area per Country (map)". Archived from the original on 9 January 2019.
- ^ Natasha May Azarian (2007). The Seeds of Memory: Narrative Renditions of the Armenian genocide Across Generations. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-549-53005-3. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
Mount Ararat is considered the 'heart' of historical Armenia as it is Armenian folklore which considers the majestic mountain to be the place where Noah's Arc landed. Armenian businesses, households, and schools almost ubiquitously have at ...
- ^ Rouben Paul Adalian (13 May 2010). Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Scarecrow Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8108-7450-3. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
Although the mythology associated with the pagan worship of the mountain is now lost to popular belief, Mount Ararat has played a very ...
- ^ James Minahan (1998). Miniature empires: a historical dictionary of the newly independent states. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-313-30610-5. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
Mount Ararat, the legendary landing place of Noah's Ark, is located in what is now modern Turkey. Situated near the border, the peak is visible from nearly every area of Armenia. Historically, the mountain has been the Armenian people's most ...
- ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution" (PDF). Scientific Data. 5 (1): 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
- ^ "Environmental Performance Index". epi.envirocenter.yale.edu. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
- ^ Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023.
- ^ "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Armenia". Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
- ^ ""We have good reasons to boast economic growth in the coming years" – Karen Karapetyan Pleased with 2017 Indices in Kotayk Marz". www.gov.am. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ "EU: Armenia nuclear plant should be shut down as soon as possible". news.am. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ "Modernization to increase the capacity of Armenian nuclear power plant by 10%". arka.am. 13 February 2018. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ "Armenian Nuclear Power Plant upgrading program to continue in 2018". armenpress.am. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ a b Fischer Weltalmanach 2019- Zahlen Daten Fakten. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer. 1 July 2018. p. 45. ISBN 978-3-596-72019-4.
- ^ "Global Data | Fragile States Index". fragilestatesindex.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
- ^ "Armenia 1995 (rev. 2005) Constitution - Constitute". www.constituteproject.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
- ^ "Archive —". aceproject.org. Archived from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
- ^ "Armenia invited as observer for Arab League". Azad Hye. 19 January 2005. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
- ^ Leblanc, Daniel (9 October 2018). "Prime Minister Trudeau has last shot to help Michaëlle Jean stay on as Francophonie leader". Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
- ^ a b "Nagorno-Karabakh: The Crisis in the Caucasus". Archived from the original on 21 July 2006. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
- ^ "Armenia and Turkey sign peace deal". Archived from the original on 14 October 2009.
- ^ a b Nona Mikhelidze (5 March 2010). "The Turkish-Armenian Rapprochement at the Deadlock" (PDF). IAI Istituto Affari Internazionali. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Protocol on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of. Turkey and the Republic of Armenia" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Relations between Turkey and Armenia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Baku and Moscow – 'One Hundred Percent Strategic Partners'". Hetq Online. 27 February 2006. Archived from the original on 1 July 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
- ^ "Ancestry Data". U.S. Census Bureau. 2006. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2009. The 2001 Canadian Census Archived 9 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine determined that there are 40,505 persons of Armenian ancestry currently living in Canada. However, these are liable to be low numbers, since people of mixed ancestry, very common in North America tend to be under-counted: the 1990 census US indicates Archived 24 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine 149,694 people who speak the Armenian language at home. "The Armenian Embassy in Canada". Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 1 June 2016. estimates 1 million ethnic Armenians in the US and 100,000 in Canada. The Armenian Church of America makes a similar estimate. By all accounts, over half of the Armenians in the United States live in California.
- ^ European Parliament on the European Union's relations with the South Caucasus, archived from the original on 2 July 2020, retrieved 4 October 2020
- ^ "RFE/RL Caucasus Report". Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 7 January 2005. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ "Interview with RA National Assembly Speaker Artur Baghdasaryan". ArmInfo News Agency. 26 October 2005. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ "Eurasian Economic Commission". www.eurasiancommission.org. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
- ^ "ДОГОВОР О ПРИСОЕДИНЕНИИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ АРМЕНИЯ К ДОГОВОРУ О ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОМ СОЮЗЕ ОТ 29 МАЯ 2014 ГОДА (Минск, 10 октября 2014 года)". www.customs-code.ru. Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
- ^ "Armenia To Join Russian-Led Customs Union". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 3 September 2013. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
- ^ "New agreement signed between the European Union and Armenia set to bring tangible benefits to citizens". EEAS. European Commission. 24 November 2017. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
- ^ "Joint Proposal for a Council Decision on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Union, of the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Armenia, of the other part". EUR-Lex. 25 September 2017. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ^ "EU and Armenia take stock on Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement implementation". EU Neighbours. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ^ Zahorka, Hans-Juergen. "How Armenia Could Approach the European Union" (PDF). Europäisches Institut GmbH. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
- ^ "EU launches negotiations on Association Agreements with Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia". Europa (web portal). 15 July 2010. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ "Armenia-EU association agreement may be concluded shortly | Armenia News". News.am. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ "3rd Plenary Round of the EU–Armenia Negotiation on the Association Agreement". Ec.europa.eu. 15 December 2010. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
- ^ Gavin, Gabriel (23 February 2024). "Putin loses grip on member of his military alliance". Politico.eu. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Pashinyan warns of potential de jure freeze of Armenia's activities in CSTO if the current process continues". Armenpress. 28 February 2024. Archived from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
- ^ Leven, Denis (12 March 2024). "Armenia moves to expel Russian border guards from Yerevan's airport". Politico.eu. Archived from the original on 12 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Armenia's bid for EU membership - Yerevan's shift away from Russia". trend.az. 2 March 2024. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Will Armenia apply to become a candidate for EU membership in the coming days?". radar.am. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "NIKOL PASHINYAN SAID THAT YOU SHOULD APPLY TO BECOME A CANDIDATE FOR EU MEMBERSHIP BEFORE AUTUMN AT THE LATEST". hraparak.am. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Armenia mulling EU membership application, foreign minister says". politico.eu. 9 March 2024. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Armenia is considering seeking EU membership, foreign minister says". euractiv.com. 10 March 2024. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "The retreat of global democracy stopped in 2018". The Economist. 8 January 2019. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 9 January 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
- ^ "Armenia". freedomhouse.org. 31 January 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
- ^ "Armenia". freedomhouse.org. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ "Armenia : A revolution live-streamed | Reporters without borders". RSF. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^ "Armenia improves positions in World Press Freedom Index by 19 points: Pashinyan confident in continuation of progress". armenpress.am. 18 April 2019. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^ "The Human Freedom Index 2023" (PDF). Fraser Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ "COUNTRY PROFILES" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2018.
- ^ "Human Freedom Index". Cato Institute. Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
- ^ "The Armenian Parliament ratified the Rome Statute. What was it necessary for?". 3 October 2023. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
- ^ "Regional Administration Bodies". The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2008.
- ^ "Armstat:Provinces, area and population" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
- ^ a b "The Main Results of RA Census 2022, trilingual / Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia". www.armstat.am. Retrieved 5 November 2024. Cite error: The named reference "2022 Census" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Demourian, Avet (19 October 2007). "Armenian Eyes, Ears on US Genocide Vote". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 April 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
- ^ a b Z. Lerman and A. Mirzakhanian, Private Agriculture in Armenia, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD, 2001.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook 2007 Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Armenia National Statistical Service, Yerevan
- ^ a b "Country Trends". Global Footprint Network. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
- ^ Lin, David; Hanscom, Laurel; Murthy, Adeline; Galli, Alessandro; Evans, Mikel; Neill, Evan; Mancini, MariaSerena; Martindill, Jon; Medouar, FatimeZahra; Huang, Shiyu; Wackernagel, Mathis (2018). "Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012-2018". Resources. 7 (3): 58. doi:10.3390/resources7030058.
- ^ Kiniry, Laura. "How Armenia Plans to Become the Next World-Class Hiking Destination". Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
- ^ "Unemployment Armenia". Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
- ^ "Index of Economic Freedom: Armenia". Heritage Organisation. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
- ^ "The head of the Central Bank of Armenia hopes for economic growth at the end of the year by 13%". AKM EN. 20 October 2022. Archived from the original on 27 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ "IMF slashes forecast for Armenian economic growth for 2022". www.intellinews.com. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 27 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g Erocal, Deniz; Yegorov, Igor (2015). Countries in the Black Sea basin. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. pp. 324–41. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). "Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship" (PDF). www.wipo.int. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
- ^ "The Main Results of RA Census 2022 / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia". www.armstat.am. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
- ^ "World Development Indicators – Google Public Data Explorer". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
- ^ Paul, Amanda. "Armenia's disappearing population". Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ "World Development Indicators – Google Public Data Explorer". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
- ^ Turay, Anna. "Tarihte Ermeniler". Bolsohays:Istanbul Armenians Like many other ethnicities Armenians in India too have played a role historically and had an impact historically. Today however the community has been reduced to about a hundred living in Calcutta. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
- ^ "Jerusalem – The Old City: The Armenian Quarter". Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ "San Lazzaro degli Armeni – Venice for Visitors". Europeforvisitors.com. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Nagorno-Karabakh almost empty as most of population flees to Armenia". Radio France Internationale. 30 September 2023. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
- ^ "Population in Nagorno-Karabakh 2007" (PDF). National Statistical Service of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ Asatryan, Garnik; Arakelova, Victoria (2002). The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia. Routledge., part of the OSCE
- ^ a b "The Main Results of RA Census 2022". ArmStat. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
- ^ "The Transcaucasian Soviet Federation". Russian Review. 3 (24). Washington, D.C.: The Russian Information Bureau: 498. 15 December 1925. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
- ^ (in Russian) The All-Union Population Census of 1989 Archived 4 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Demoscope.ru
- ^ "New Index Shows Least-, Most-Accepting Countries for Migrants". Gallup.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
- ^ Charles Dowsett, E. Peters. Sayat'-Nova. An 18th-century Troubadour: a Biographical and Literary Study. Peeters Publishers, 1997 ISBN 90-6831-795-4; p. xv
- ^ Hacikyan, Agop Jack; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan (2000). The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the Oral Tradition to the Golden Age. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780814328156.
- ^ "The South Caucasus Between The EU and the Eurasian Union" (PDF). Caucasus Analytical Digest #51–52. Forschungsstelle Osteuropa, Bremen and Center for Security Studies, Zürich. 17 June 2013. pp. 22–23. ISSN 1867-9323. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- ^ "Armenia – Which Nation First Adopted Christianity?". Ancienthistory.about.com. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
- ^ "Visit Armenia, It is Beautiful". Visitarmenia.org. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
- ^ "Armenia Information – Welcome to Armenia". Welcomearmenia.com. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
- ^ "Armenian Census 2011" (PDF) (in Armenian). p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Armenia". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ "Armenian Brotherhood Church of Yerevan". Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
- ^ "Armenian Evangelical Christian Baptist". Armbaplife.am. Archived from the original on 25 August 2007. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
- ^ "Despite poverty, Baptists prosper in Armenia" (PDF). Biblical Recorder. Baptist State convention of North Carolina. 17 July 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ "Armenian Presbyterian Church to Commemorate 1700th Anniversary of Christianity in Armenia with Concert and Khachkar Dedication". The Armenian Reporter. 20 October 2001. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- ^ Lane, Christel (1978). Christian religion in the Soviet Union: a sociological study. Albany: State univ. of New York P. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-87395-327-6. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ "The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia" (PDF). Yerevan. 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
- ^ Bardi, Ariel Sophia (11 November 2019). "Inside the world's biggest Yazidi temple in Armenia". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ Badalian, Susan (13 May 2019). "Minister Cautious About Corruption in Healthcare". «Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» Ռադիոկայան. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ "Armenia's Basic Benefits Package and Universal Health Insurance Systems". 29 November 2021. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ "Armenia to introduce free healthcare for the under-18s". 27 June 2019. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ "Chart – World Development Indicators (Google Public Data Explorer)". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ "Chart – World Development Indicators (Google Public Data Explorer)". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ "Chart – World Development Indicators (Google Public Data Explorer)". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Curtis, Glenn E. and Ronald G. Suny. "Education". Armenia: A Country Study Archived 12 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (March 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "About us". araratbaccalaureate.am. Archived from the original on 2 February 2018. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
- ^ "The Araratian Baccalaureate: A guide for universities" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
- ^ "Chart – World Development Indicators (Google Public Data Explorer)". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ "Chart – World Development Indicators (Google Public Data Explorer)". www.google.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
- ^ "Arts of Armenia (Architecture)". armenianstudies.csufresno.edu. Archived from the original on 15 February 2015.
- ^ "Legislation: National Assembly of Armenia". Parliament.am. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ a b "2020 Press Freedom report". Reporters Without Borders. 14 October 2020. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^ Stefes, C.; Paturyan, Yevgenya J. (25 August 2021). "After the Revolution: State, Civil Society, and Democratization in Armenia and Georgia". Frontiers in Political Science. 3. doi:10.3389/fpos.2021.719478.
- ^ "Concern about judicial harassment of Armenia's media" Archived 14 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Reporters Without Borders. February 18, 2020.
- ^ Armenian Cinema 100, by Artsvi Bakhchinyan, Yerevan, 2012, pp. 111–112
- ^ a b c "Ambassadors in Sport?: Independent Armenia far below the glory of Soviet times on the pitch, mat". ArmeniaNow. 15 December 2006. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
- ^ "Inter Milan sign Mkhitaryan on free transfer". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- ^ Thomas A. Green, ed. (2001). Martial arts of the world: en encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 718. ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2.
- ^ "Armenia: the cleverest nation on earth". BBC World Service. 18 October 2009. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
Sources
- Canard, Marius & Cahen, Claude (1960). "Armīniya". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 634–640. OCLC 495469456.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
- Armenia on Twitter
- Armenia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Wikimedia Atlas of Armenia- Key Development Forecasts for Armenia from International Futures
- Armeniapedia.org
- Armenia profile from the BBC News
- Armenia Stock Exchange
| History (timeline) |
|  | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geography | ||||||||||
| Politics | ||||||||||
| Economy |
| |||||||||
| Culture |
| |||||||||
- Armenia
- Armenian-speaking countries and territories
- Caucasus
- Christian states
- Countries in Asia
- Countries in Europe
- Member states of the United Nations
- Landlocked countries
- Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States
- Member states of the Council of Europe
- Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union
- Member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organization
- Republics
- South Caucasus
- States and territories established in 1918
- States and territories established in 1991
- States and territories disestablished in 1920
- West Asian countries
- States with limited recognition
- 1991 establishments in Europe